Chronology of Byzantium and Persia
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363 – Julian fails to sack Ctesiphon and has to make major territorial concessions, inc most of Armenia and Nisibis (formerly established by Diocletian as sole point of market exchange between the 2 powers)

C5 - peace due to other preoccupations:

410s – repression in Persia under Yazdegerd I, civil strife.

421-2 – Bahram V unsuccessful v Rome – made 100 yr peace and granted freedom of worship to the Christians.

441-2 -

489 – Death of Shah Peroz in conflict with Hephthalite nomads = shocking disaster / dent to prestige. Taking on Rome = key move to restore legitimacy – required reorganisation of Persian government.

C6 – fairly even match:

510 – Hephthalite pressure forced Kavadh I to ratify a peace treaty with Byzantium.

527 – Persians initiate conflict à 531 – defeat of Belisarius (Byz general) by Kavadh at Callinicum.

532 – ‘eternal peace’ between Khusro I and Justinian. J to pay 11 000lb of gold. Khusro readjusted taxation system – reputation as enlightened and just ruler.

Consider J’s other commitments: attempted reconquest of W – success in Africa à great hopes, propaganda stressing mil superiority and divine mission - success in Sicily and Rome/Ravenna. Attempt to resolve long-standing dilemma re paying Persia for safety.

540 – war resumed on Sas initiative, several armistices but generally lasted through until 561. Sack of Antioch. Khusro demanded more and more silver to guarantee safety of other cities.

Khusro sacked Antioch; distraction enabled Goths to reclaim much of Italy. But won back by 552, and most of Med coastline brought under control of Byz. This important for preservation of Greco-Byz presence – indirect influence on development of papacy and W conception of classical tradition. But overreaching resources / greedy (Procopius in ‘Secret History’) ?

Khusro also extended power to Black Sea and inflicted heavy defeats on Hephthalites.

545 and 551 – treaties cost RE 4600lb of gold and were not solid. (local conflicts between Arab allies of Byz and Persia in Lazica implicated both parties. Key role in borderland security but no substitue for regular military investment.).

560 – Persian alliance with Turks à decisive defeat of Hephthalites, common boundary and alliance est with Turks

572 – Turks allied with Byzantium against Persians.

580s – civil war in Persia – rival claims to throne – rel factionalism – Maurice eventually intervened to restore Khusro by military force. Huge embarassment for Sasanians and concessions made to Rome in Armenia. Persians eager for opp to win back mil prestige and even score.

C7 – escalation:

602 – assassination of Maurice and war begins – escalates seriously – R + P both organised for serious warfare. [610 – Heraclius crowned emperor – began to rebuild nucleus of new army. ] Persians penetrated as far as Chalcedon (opp Co), ravaged Syria, captured Antioch (611) / Damascus (613) / Jerusalem (614) / occupied Egypt (619).

622 – Romans retaliated vigorously with much success – 624 invaded Azerbaijan and destroyed fire temple, 627 entered Tigris provinces. Heraclius seen to have fought war as crusade to return Holy Cross to Jerusalem. Little resistance. Anarchy in Persia after death of Kavadh II in 628.

New superpower upset balance:

All these prolonged and exhausting hostilities upset balance of power between Byz and Iran.

25 years slogging away – recruitment and finance problems for Byzantines.

Arch evidence à serious and widespread disturbances for ERE in Asia Minor / Syria / Palestine due to preceding Persian invasions – limited resources to restore cities.

19 year absence of authority and associated systems which had provided security.

All this crucial to devastating impact of Islam.

Byz slow to realise that these were not just Saracen raids. Not an obvious enemy – Arab allies all around and absence of authority – more like a civil struggle with new impetus.

Persian centre of power was in Iraq – successful agriculture depended on irrigation. No defence to SE (desert).

Battle of al-Qadisayya (636/7) à Sasanians lost Persia to Arabs because Ctesiphon was at the mercy of the victors. Shah fled. Muslims officially tolerated Zoroastrianiam, but it gradually vanished from Iran. New pol order by 650.

From 633 Roman E overrun rapidly. First Transjordan / Syria / Palestine. Jerusalem 638. Egypt 641. 653 citizens of Co see Muslim army on Bosphorus.

Local suffering, but continuity – at first Islamic rulers just took over Byz admin.

Success because Arabs were united / excellent warriors / culture prized personal valour.

Armenia:

Sasanians unsuccessful in attempts to assimilate the Armenians. Used as a ‘buffer state’ since Theodosius and throughout C5.

451 – war in resistance to Shah’s attempts to impose Zoroastrian faith – Armenian commanders killed but no attempt to enforce conversion by mil means.

481-4 – rel and pol freedom for Armenia in return for mil aid to Persia.

536 – J reorganized Byz Armenia into 4 provinces – suppressed power of Armenian nobles è effective Hellenization.

Armenia repeatedly victim / tool of great power conflicts between R and P, used by both sides.

Status warfare:

•          War = key focus of RE – statues + swords + armour / ostentatious monumental architecture / formal processions – all celebrating mil victories of emperors.

•          Endless repetition of all this; R Emperors went to war to demonstrate status / legitimacy of regime / God’s favour for Christian regimes.

•          Focus on E since C2 BC – inherited from Greeks a tradition of success against Persia (Alexander v. Xerxes etc.). Persians seen as sweaty oriental barbarians, but were effectively rival superpower.

•          Christianity seen to be crucial element in bringing victory (e.g. for Clovis). [huge shock when RE later carved up by Muslims].

•          Victory = gold standard, positive cultural ramifications. This carried throught to Middle Ages.

•          Some respect for Sasanians (they had defended Rome from Iran), but Romans still expected victory if no distractions in W.

w         Culture of competitive warfare self-perpetuating; one side wins à rival seeks rematch. Isaac: War was about one-upmanship / occupying troops / imperial glory.

•          Hence a ‘status war’ which lacks well-defined strategic objectives.

•          Defence was not a key issue for ERE – victory culture / political testosterone / expansion of Empire = key aim. However, crucial role of Persian élites = defence of Iran from nomad – bound up with Zoroastrian ‘good god’ of farming / sun / settlement. Sasanian legitimacy depended on subduing nomad invasions.

Analysis:

•          N.B. Lee; both sophisticated ancient states were different to neighbours in terms of urban development / govt organisation / stability. Sasanians had claim to ancient dignity. No obvious natural boundaries between the two (except S desert). Both were taxing empires with professional armies – strikingly modern states. Much offered to servants of the state.

•          Propaganda of both states betrays respect for each other. Commercial and cultural links through Mesopotamia. Persian carvings indicate subtle digs at conventions of R art. Respect / trust (e.g. Arcadius’ appointment of Yazgard as regent of his son). Marcellinus praised Persia as comprehensible and accessible. Perceived stability à more emphasis on political relationships.

•          Isaac – Byz sought constructive co-operation with Persia against nomad threats – expansion not on the Roman agenda – policing by Saracen allies. Concept of frontier requires attn – frontier line ‘congealed by default’. Territorial motives not relevant here. Lack of topological awareness (e.g. Madaba Map – interesting but not useful for mil planning). Intelligence systems did gather info about enemy strength / prevented surprise attacks. No overall strategy for Byz.

•          C5 peace because both wanted it, and diplomacy was sufficiently developed to facilitate co-operation. Mutual recognition of parity of status – Rome vulnerable de to Huns and Persian shahs had difficulties in marshalling resources for big campaigns. Intelligence systems à mutual awareness of stat us quo – neither party sought active mil engagement / to destabilise the other. Cameron – proposes sophisticated information-movement / intelligence system as reason for C5 maintenance of peace. Less emphasis on action à promoted stability. But mutual suspicion crucial.

•          BUT NB still tensions (Persia not approached for help re Huns in W). Conflicts 420-22 (Byz tried to use Christian missions to entice Saracen allegiance) and 441-2 (Vandal piracy threatened W Med basin – this distraction exploited by Persians because Romans were making no effort to defend Caspian gates (as had promised in peace treaty)). Broadly because of R reluctance to admit need to respect Persian power + thus neglect of treaty obligations. But these conflicts allowed reassessment of contentious issues and therefore strengthened peace.

•          But C6; Byz attempts to fulfil outdated imperial responsibilities à failure to honour peace treaties à Persia made crippling financial exactions. Byz no longer wanted alliance with Persia due to these demands. 532 and 562 – Justinian had committed Byz to huge regular payments. Est of a defence system independent of Persian benevolence or caprice. Reforms under Khusro strengthened Sasanian govt, but Byz struggling to retain control of local élites. No real permanent gains by Persia before 590. R had rel prof mil force. Also C was an inclusive cult – Zoroastrianism, however, was chiefly the preserve of the nobility and was not exportable.

w         C7 balance of power changed – loss of mutual interest in peace – Persia able and willing to realise pol advantages. Howard-Johnston – RE used trad governing techniques, whereas Sasanian state able to penetrate deeper into society and exert more influence à better systems of state service / more effective recruitment. Persia able to extract greater mil forces from a resource base equal to that of Rome.Gains due to R disunity and problems with Armenia and also with Avars.

Other Notes in this Category

1. Ancient Cities
2. Carolignian Period
3. Charles the Bald
4. Chronology of Byzantium and Persia
5. Dynasty of Theodosius I and Barbarians in the West
6. French and British Agriculture
7. Islamic Conquests up to 700 a.d. - Islamic Strenghts / Roman Weaknesses?
8. Islamic Conquests up to 700 a.d. - Islamic Strenghts / Roman Weaknesses?
9. MOHAMMED, CHARLEMAGEN AND THE ORIGINS OF EUROPE
10. New Centres of Power in the 8th and Ninth Century
11. Peace and War - Rome and Persia - 5-7th Centuries
12. Practice Questions
13. The Age of Attila
14. The Decline of the Ancient World
15. The Mediterranean and the Dilemma of the Roman Empire in Late antiquity
16. Warfare
17. Was successful Kingship in Merovingian Gaul simply a matter of being an effective and lucky war lead
18. Why did the western empire fall when the east survived?

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