The early islamic world – patricia crone
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• 630 and 656 invaded Sasanid Empire and eastern parts of Byzantine Empire = 3 civil wars in mean time.
• 1^st civil war 661 – 750 – transfer power to Umayyad family ruled from Syria, survived second civil war 684 – 92 but third 744-50 transferred power to Abbasids ruled from Iraq
• THE CONQUEST SOCIETY – 630 – 750
• Conquest coordinated from central location – Medina, with unitary leadership. Did not disperse to lands stayed as soldiers in garrison (amsar) – down to 2^nd caliph ‘Umar 634 – 44 not division of and for future generations
• Arabs located early garrisons with quick exit: Kufa and Basra in Iraq, Fustat in Egypt and Qayrawan in North Africa. Each accommodates regional army from which sent out for suppression or expansion.
• New lands vastly richer than Arabia and society moves to Middle East – first Umayyad capital in Syria after 656-61 civil war and then Abbasids to Iraq – never back to Arabia.
• Arabia merely an appendage – all Muslims soldiers – Bedouin less status as they stayed behind, as opposed to muhajirun who were soldier. Muslims were army.
• Muslims let pre-conquest nobility administer and relatively peaceful, uncoordinated attempts. More difficult to keep own ranks in order. Free to devote most of their military energy in first 100 years to expansion.
• MILITARY ROLL – soldiers and wives given stipend but had to pay alms transferred into tax. Required for service spring to winter not called up every year. Had to supply own equipment – horse, lance, sword, bow, quiver, helmet, armor – maintain himself on campaign.
• Diwan modelled on military roll of Persia and / or Byzantines – reward for participation in conquests, rather than every man for his own booty state dealt it out. Umar seen as creator of perfect welfare state – presented by God for embracing his cause – initially emigrants subsidized by the government.
• Not much money spent on caliph, no separate army from Muslim society – only rule by agreement with tribal chiefs on whom control of mass of Arab tribesmen depended. Early caliphate a federation of semi-autonomous armies over which caliph “first councillor” presided – Mu’awiaya’s governors choosen from kinship and friends. Relied on tribal chiefs to keep control of Muslim population. Chiefs were intermediaries in an indirect system of government. Little direct control.
• RECEPTION OF NATIVES – only 500,000 Arabs initially and 20 million natives – utilized them as tax collectors and bureaucrats, but did welcome some deserters, and made treaties with non-Muslims in difficult terrain – Eastern Iran – did not conscript non-Muslims. Did capture many people who, although viewed with contempt – coon permeated army and society.
• Collective enrolment of natives – Bukhariya and Indian Qiqaniyya – primarily used as public force and used in urban-policing.
• Captives end up a servants and slaves but become Muslim and in a generation or two non-Arab Muslims outnumber Arab Muslims. Took up civilian posts after manumission – thus a civilian Muslim society created where previously there had been none – again some came into the army.
• Captives almost all became Muslims and fought as such were – many armed slaves and freedmen, little worry of fighting masters. Freedmen could also register as soldiers in their own right – rose to military governorships and commands.
• DILUTION OF ARABS – sons of Arabs conquerors born under caliphs and religion for granted – soldiers rather than warriors. Especially in Iraq not much to do and where were called up often deserted or sent substitutes – many reluctant or incompetent performed badly against sectarian Kharijite rebels in 685 – 95
• 699 Iraqi troops sent to Sistan to put down a rebel – deserted and beaten by Syrians. 70 – 702. Iraq effectively demilitarised and Arabs of Iraq became traders, shopkeepers, scholars and absentee landowners.
• Distinct professional army from citizen army – Syrians provide field army used for garrison service and emergencies across the empire – armies of Upper Mesopotamia used and Khrusan confined to local use. Both were in constant use, except in winter, and paid regularly. Regional armies fell into differing degrees of obsolescence.
• Assimilation undermined tribal cohesion of the Arabs – different interests, lost ability to act as a unit. Tribal chiefs could no longer use them to control groups in questions – indirect control by tribal chiefs replaced by direct military control. Increasing social and geographic differentiation – ceased to be a homogenous people – formulation and maintenance of consensus difficult and endangered empire – nothing to hold it together apart from Arabs themselves. 2^nd civil war of 684-92 considerable longer and more complex than the first – and Umayyad victory more of a military conquest. Syrians used as a new conquest elite – subjecting Muslims and non-Muslims to same military regime.
• Syrian army dominated by “bedouin” of Syrian desert – Umayyads maintain links with tribal leaders and recruited in return for fiscal and political advantages. Arab conquest elite began to disappear – Umayyads seen to rescue it infusion fresh desert Arabs noted for tribal solidarity and devotion to caliphal house. Emigration petered out 680 and no attempts to raise new Arabian armies.
• Emergence of Syrian field army – caliphate ceased to be a confederation of regional armies – Mu’awiya 661 – 80 – hereditary succession seen as a move away from consultative government – winning two civil wars coercive government, authoritarian style. Taxing provinces and protests. Consultation tribal chiefs pointless and Muslim society no longer network friends and allies.
• Muslims harked back to pre-civil wars days: egalitarian tribesmen ruled without forces of coercion, caliphs in medina without dynastic succession, government had been consultative policies based on what was true and right. All Muslims worked in path of God who rewarded them with victory over infidels..
• What went wrong? – Most blamed Umayyads – mulk or kingship and coercive government for benefit of rulers – type of government that Byzantines and Sasanids had been saddled with and what Muslims destroyed. Muslims continued to expand the Umayyads facing a losing battle – lost 3^rd civil war
• THE EARLY ABBASIDS – 750 – 861
• Khurasanis mixed Arab and Iranian origin – replace Syrians as keepers of political unity and internal order. Enthroned by Abbasdis – could not maintain caliphate for long
• By 800 Muslim society was dominated by urban scholars and notables disapproving of imperial government and who had no real stake in it – military and political leaders disproportionately drawn from a single province – alliance broken by 4^th civil war
• Abbasids harvested fruits of the conquest – Muslims arrived in non-Arab Middle East with tribal solidarity and religious distrust – could no longer rely on empire wide tribal solidarity.

Other Notes in this Category

1. A tribal society
2. Abu Bakr and Ridda wars
3. Causes of Islamic Conquest
4. Conclusions
5. Economics and Social Relations
6. Foundations of the islamic conquest
7. Introductory Points
8. muhammad’s consolidation
9. Muhammad’s Teachings
10. Political life in northern and central arabia
11. Religious Aristocracies
12. State and society in pre-islamic arabia
13. The early islamic world – patricia crone
14. The New Ruling Elite
15. The State and the Nomads
16. Tribe and state in arabia

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